Physicochemical And Pharmaceutical Evaluation Of Cellulose And Na-CMC Obtained From Bagasse And Leaves Of Sugarcane Species Co-7527
Keywords:
Sugarcane bagasse; Sugarcane leaves; Cellulose extraction; Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Na-CMC); Pharmaceutical excipient; Waste valorization; Pharmacoeconomics; Biopolymer.
Abstract
This study explores the sustainable valorisation of agro-industrial waste by extracting cellulose and synthesizing sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Na-CMC) from the bagasse and leaves of sugarcane (variety Co-7527). The objective was to comprehensively evaluate these polymers for their potential as pharmaceutical excipients based on physicochemical properties, performance in solid dosage forms, and economic feasibility. The extracted celluloses and their Na-CMC derivatives underwent rigorous analysis, including assessments of solubility, assay value, metallic impurities, starch contamination, water retention, and swellability.
Results indicated that while cellulose and Na-CMC from leaves exhibited superior overall physicochemical characteristics, the derivatives sourced from bagasse demonstrated enhanced stability profiles. A key finding was the significantly superior water retention and swellability capacity of the bagasse-derived Na-CMC (C1/CMC1) compared to the leaves-based product (C2/CMC2). Critical quality attributes for polymers were confirmed; the degree of substitution for both synthesized Na-CMC samples exceeded the pharmacopeial threshold of 0.4, and the degree of polymerization was higher for bagasse-derived cellulose (830) than for leaves-derived cellulose (654). Pharmaceutical application tests in model solid dosage forms confirmed the functional suitability of both Na-CMC types as effective excipients.
A preliminary pharmacoeconomic assessment confirmed that deriving these polymers from sugarcane waste is highly cost-effective. This work concludes that bagasse and leaves from sugarcane Co-7527 are viable and sustainable sources for producing high-quality cellulose and Na-CMC. This approach not only provides a low-cost alternative for the pharmaceutical industry but also offers a lucrative waste management solution, enhancing the overall economic viability of sugarcane cultivation and supporting circular bioeconomy principles.
References
1. Abdel-Halim ES. Chemical modification of cellulose extracted from sugarcane bagasse: Preparation of hydroxyethyl cellulose. Arab J Chem. 2013;7:962–71.
2. Adinugraha MP, Marseno DW, Haryadi. Synthesis and characterization of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose from Cavendish banana pseudo stem (Musa cavendishii LAMBERT). Carbohydr Polym. 2005;62:164–9.
3. Aqualon TM Cellulose Gum. Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose, Physical and Chemical Properties. Wilmington, Del.: Aqualon Co., Hercules Inc.; 1988.
4. ASTM. Analytical method for determining degree of substitution in the product. Document CK-606, 5: D-1439-03. 2005.
5. Barai BK, Singhal RS, Kulkarni PR. Optimization of a process for preparing carboxymethyl cellulose from water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes). Carbohydr Polym. 1997;32:229–31.
6. Barba C, Montané D, Rinaudo M, Taherzadeh MJ. Synthesis and characterization of carboxymethylcelluloses (CMC) from non-wood fibers. Cellulose. 2002;9:319–26.
7. Biswal DR, Singh RP. Characterisation of carboxymethyl cellulose and polyacrylamide graft copolymer. Carbohydr Polym. 2004;57:379–87.
8. Candido RG, Gonçalves AR. Synthesis of cellulose acetate and carboxymethylcellulose from sugarcane straw. Carbohydr Polym. 2016;152:679–86.
9. Chawla V, Upreti K, Kumar L, Kirsali A, Anand S. Effect of hydrophilic swellable polymer on dissolution of paracetamol using simple mixing technique. World J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2014;3(9):421–6.
10. Dapia S, Santos V, Parajó JC. Carboxymethylcellulose from totally chlorine free-bleached milox pulps. Bioresour Technol. 2003;89:289–96.
11. Gencke M, Liebert T, Seoud OA, Heinze T. Tailored media for homogeneous cellulose chemistry: Ionic liquid/co-solvent mixtures. Macromol Mater Eng. 2011;296:483–93.
12. Joshi G, Naithani S, Varshney V, Bisht SS, Rana V, Gupta P. Synthesis and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from office paper waste: A greener approach. Waste Manag. 2015;38:33–40.
13. Karataş M, Arslan N. Flow behaviours of cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose from grapefruit peel. Food Hydrocoll. 2016;58:235–45.
14. Luz SM, Gonçalves AR, Ferrão PMC, Freitas MJM, Leão AL, Del’Arco Jr AP. Water absorption studies of vegetable fibers reinforced polypropylene composites. Proc 6th Int Symp Nat Polym Compos. 2007.
15. Moutta RO, Chandel AK, Rodrigues RCLB, Silva MB, Rocha GJM, Silva SS. Statistical optimization of sugarcane leaves hydrolysis into simple sugars. Sugar Tech. 2012;14(1):53–60.
16. Menandro LMS, Canterella H, Franco HCJ, Carvalho J. Comprehensive assessment of sugarcane straw: Implications for biomass and bioenergy. Biofuels Bioprod Bioref. 2017;1–17.
17. Marques-Marinho FD, Vianna-Soares CD. Cellulose and its derivatives used in pharmaceutical compounding practice. Intech. 2013;8:141–62.
18. Pushpalamar V, Langford SJ, Ahmad M, Lim YY. Optimization of reaction conditions for preparing carboxymethylcellulose from sago waste. Carbohydr Polym. 2006;70:406–14.
19. Rachtanapun P, Kumthai S, Yagi N, Uthaiyod N. Production of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) films from papaya peel. Proc 45th Kasetsart Univ Annu Conf. 2007:790–9.
20. Sun X, Sun RC, Su YQ, Sun JX. Comparative study of crude and purified cellulose from wheat straw. J Agric Food Chem. 2004;52:832–47.
21. Togrul H, Nurhan A. Production of carboxymethyl cellulose from sugar beet pulp cellulose. Carbohydr Polym. 2003;54:73–82.
22. Trask L. Pharmacoeconomics: Principles, Methods, and Applications. In: Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach. 8th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2011.
23. Vieira RGP, Rodrigues Filho G, de Assunçáo RMN, Meireles CS, Vieira JG, de Oliveira GS. Synthesis and characterization of methycellulose from sugarcane bagasse cellulose. Carbohydr Polym. 2007;67:182–9.
24. Van de Vyver S, Geoboers J, Jacobs PA, Sels BF. Advances in catalytic conversion of cellulose. ChemCatChem. 2011;3:82–94.
25. Varshney VK, Naithani S. Chemical cellulose derived from non-conventional sources. In: Cellulose Fibers: Bio and Nano-Polymer. 2011;Chap 2:236–49.
26. Yang XH, Zhu WL. Viscosity properties of sodium carboxymethylcellulose solutions. Cellulose. 2007;14:409–17.
27. Yaşar F, Toğrul H, Arslan N. Flow properties of cellulose I family: Reinvestigation of cellulose [V]. Biomacromolecules. 2007;5:1385–91.
28. Zhang P, Dong SJ, Ma HH, Zhang BX, Wang YF, Hu XM. Fractionation of corn stover using ionic liquids. Ind Crops Prod. 2015;76:638–96.
29. US Pharmacopoeia. U.S. Pharmacopoeia National Formulary (USP 27 NF 22). Vol. 31(5). Rockville, Md: United States Pharmacopoeial Convention; 2015. p. 2847.
30. US Pharmacopoeia. U.S. Pharmacopoeia National Formulary (USP 27 NF 22). Vol. 31(5). Rockville, Md: United States Pharmacopoeial Convention; 2015. p. 1349.
31. Heinze T, Liebert T. Unconventional methods in cellulose functionalization. Prog Polym Sci. 2001;26:1689–76.
32. Klemm D, Heublein B, Fink HP, Bohn A. Cellulose: Fascinating biopolymer and sustainable raw material. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2005;44:3358–93.
33. Habibi Y, Lucia LA, Rojas OJ. Cellulose nanocrystals: Chemistry, self-assembly, and applications. Chem Rev. 2010;110:3479–500.
34. Lin N, Dufresne A. Nanocellulose in biomedicine: Current status and future prospect. Eur Polym J. 2014;59:302–25.
35. Siró I, Plackett D. Microfibrillated cellulose and new nanocomposite materials. Cellulose. 2010;17:459–94.
36. Moon RJ, Martini A, Nairn J, Simonsen J, Youngblood J. Cellulose nanomaterials review. Chem Soc Rev. 2011;40:3941–94.
37. Jonoobi M, Oladi R, Davoudpour Y, et al. Different preparation methods and properties of nanostructured cellulose. Cellulose. 2015;22:935–69.
38. Li D, Xia Y. Electrospinning of nanofibers: Reinventing the wheel? Adv Mater. 2004;16:1151–70.
39. Dufresne A. Nanocellulose: From nature to high performance tailored materials. Berlin: De Gruyter; 2017.
40. Eichhorn SJ, Dufresne A, Aranguren M, et al. Review: Current international research into cellulose nanofibres. J Mater Sci. 2010;45:1–33.
41. Wang B, Sain M, Oksman K. Study of structural morphology of hemp fiber from the micro to the nanoscale. Appl Compos Mater. 2007;14:89–103.
42. Lee KY, Aitomäki Y, Berglund LA, et al. Critical review: Processing of nanocellulose. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2014;56:15–30.
43. Sehaqui H, Zhou Q, Berglund LA. High-performance nanocomposites based on cellulose nanofibers and polyurethane. Biomacromolecules. 2011;12(10):3858–66.
44. Tang Y, Yang H, Wang X, Yu Z, Zhang L. Preparation and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from corn husk. Cellulose Chem Technol. 2012;46(3–4):217–23.
45. Li X, Xu H, Chen Z, Wang Y. Preparation of carboxymethyl cellulose from cotton linter pulp using microwave-assisted method. Cellulose. 2013;20(1):287–96.
46. Ghosh P, Das M, Ghosh S. Synthesis and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from rice straw. Int J Biol Macromol. 2015;75:318–24.
47. Reddy N, Yang Y. Biofibers from agricultural byproducts for industrial applications. Trends Biotechnol. 2005;23(1):22–7.
48. Kalia S, Dufresne A, Cherian BM, Kaith BS, Avérous L, Njuguna J, et al. Cellulose-based bio- and nanocomposites: A review. Int J Polym Sci. 2011;2011:837875.
49. Szymańska M, Winnicka K. Stability of hydrogels based on carboxymethyl cellulose and sodium alginate. Polymers. 2015;7(3):550–61.
50. Bajpai SK, Sharma S. Investigation of swelling/degradation behavior of alginate beads crosslinked with Ca2+ and Ba2+ ions. React Funct Polym. 2004;59(2):129–40.
51. George J, Ramana KV, Bawa AS, Siddaramaiah. Carboxymethyl cellulose–polyvinyl alcohol films as biodegradable packaging material. J Appl Polym Sci. 2005;96(3):576–83.
52. Reddy N, Yang Y. Structure and properties of wheat straw cellulose fibers. Ind Crops Prod. 2007;26(1):100–6.
53. Li Y, Liu Y, Wang Z, Zhang Y, Zhang J. Preparation and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from tobacco stem. Cellulose Chem Technol. 2014;48(9–10):789–95.
54. Zhang L, Ruan D, Gao S. Dissolution and regeneration of cellulose in NaOH/urea aqueous solution. J Polym Sci B Polym Phys. 2002;40(14):1521–9.
55. Wang W, Zhu W, Wang Y, Li J. Preparation and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from cotton stalk. J Chem. 2015;2015:1–6.
2. Adinugraha MP, Marseno DW, Haryadi. Synthesis and characterization of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose from Cavendish banana pseudo stem (Musa cavendishii LAMBERT). Carbohydr Polym. 2005;62:164–9.
3. Aqualon TM Cellulose Gum. Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose, Physical and Chemical Properties. Wilmington, Del.: Aqualon Co., Hercules Inc.; 1988.
4. ASTM. Analytical method for determining degree of substitution in the product. Document CK-606, 5: D-1439-03. 2005.
5. Barai BK, Singhal RS, Kulkarni PR. Optimization of a process for preparing carboxymethyl cellulose from water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes). Carbohydr Polym. 1997;32:229–31.
6. Barba C, Montané D, Rinaudo M, Taherzadeh MJ. Synthesis and characterization of carboxymethylcelluloses (CMC) from non-wood fibers. Cellulose. 2002;9:319–26.
7. Biswal DR, Singh RP. Characterisation of carboxymethyl cellulose and polyacrylamide graft copolymer. Carbohydr Polym. 2004;57:379–87.
8. Candido RG, Gonçalves AR. Synthesis of cellulose acetate and carboxymethylcellulose from sugarcane straw. Carbohydr Polym. 2016;152:679–86.
9. Chawla V, Upreti K, Kumar L, Kirsali A, Anand S. Effect of hydrophilic swellable polymer on dissolution of paracetamol using simple mixing technique. World J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2014;3(9):421–6.
10. Dapia S, Santos V, Parajó JC. Carboxymethylcellulose from totally chlorine free-bleached milox pulps. Bioresour Technol. 2003;89:289–96.
11. Gencke M, Liebert T, Seoud OA, Heinze T. Tailored media for homogeneous cellulose chemistry: Ionic liquid/co-solvent mixtures. Macromol Mater Eng. 2011;296:483–93.
12. Joshi G, Naithani S, Varshney V, Bisht SS, Rana V, Gupta P. Synthesis and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from office paper waste: A greener approach. Waste Manag. 2015;38:33–40.
13. Karataş M, Arslan N. Flow behaviours of cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose from grapefruit peel. Food Hydrocoll. 2016;58:235–45.
14. Luz SM, Gonçalves AR, Ferrão PMC, Freitas MJM, Leão AL, Del’Arco Jr AP. Water absorption studies of vegetable fibers reinforced polypropylene composites. Proc 6th Int Symp Nat Polym Compos. 2007.
15. Moutta RO, Chandel AK, Rodrigues RCLB, Silva MB, Rocha GJM, Silva SS. Statistical optimization of sugarcane leaves hydrolysis into simple sugars. Sugar Tech. 2012;14(1):53–60.
16. Menandro LMS, Canterella H, Franco HCJ, Carvalho J. Comprehensive assessment of sugarcane straw: Implications for biomass and bioenergy. Biofuels Bioprod Bioref. 2017;1–17.
17. Marques-Marinho FD, Vianna-Soares CD. Cellulose and its derivatives used in pharmaceutical compounding practice. Intech. 2013;8:141–62.
18. Pushpalamar V, Langford SJ, Ahmad M, Lim YY. Optimization of reaction conditions for preparing carboxymethylcellulose from sago waste. Carbohydr Polym. 2006;70:406–14.
19. Rachtanapun P, Kumthai S, Yagi N, Uthaiyod N. Production of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) films from papaya peel. Proc 45th Kasetsart Univ Annu Conf. 2007:790–9.
20. Sun X, Sun RC, Su YQ, Sun JX. Comparative study of crude and purified cellulose from wheat straw. J Agric Food Chem. 2004;52:832–47.
21. Togrul H, Nurhan A. Production of carboxymethyl cellulose from sugar beet pulp cellulose. Carbohydr Polym. 2003;54:73–82.
22. Trask L. Pharmacoeconomics: Principles, Methods, and Applications. In: Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach. 8th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2011.
23. Vieira RGP, Rodrigues Filho G, de Assunçáo RMN, Meireles CS, Vieira JG, de Oliveira GS. Synthesis and characterization of methycellulose from sugarcane bagasse cellulose. Carbohydr Polym. 2007;67:182–9.
24. Van de Vyver S, Geoboers J, Jacobs PA, Sels BF. Advances in catalytic conversion of cellulose. ChemCatChem. 2011;3:82–94.
25. Varshney VK, Naithani S. Chemical cellulose derived from non-conventional sources. In: Cellulose Fibers: Bio and Nano-Polymer. 2011;Chap 2:236–49.
26. Yang XH, Zhu WL. Viscosity properties of sodium carboxymethylcellulose solutions. Cellulose. 2007;14:409–17.
27. Yaşar F, Toğrul H, Arslan N. Flow properties of cellulose I family: Reinvestigation of cellulose [V]. Biomacromolecules. 2007;5:1385–91.
28. Zhang P, Dong SJ, Ma HH, Zhang BX, Wang YF, Hu XM. Fractionation of corn stover using ionic liquids. Ind Crops Prod. 2015;76:638–96.
29. US Pharmacopoeia. U.S. Pharmacopoeia National Formulary (USP 27 NF 22). Vol. 31(5). Rockville, Md: United States Pharmacopoeial Convention; 2015. p. 2847.
30. US Pharmacopoeia. U.S. Pharmacopoeia National Formulary (USP 27 NF 22). Vol. 31(5). Rockville, Md: United States Pharmacopoeial Convention; 2015. p. 1349.
31. Heinze T, Liebert T. Unconventional methods in cellulose functionalization. Prog Polym Sci. 2001;26:1689–76.
32. Klemm D, Heublein B, Fink HP, Bohn A. Cellulose: Fascinating biopolymer and sustainable raw material. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2005;44:3358–93.
33. Habibi Y, Lucia LA, Rojas OJ. Cellulose nanocrystals: Chemistry, self-assembly, and applications. Chem Rev. 2010;110:3479–500.
34. Lin N, Dufresne A. Nanocellulose in biomedicine: Current status and future prospect. Eur Polym J. 2014;59:302–25.
35. Siró I, Plackett D. Microfibrillated cellulose and new nanocomposite materials. Cellulose. 2010;17:459–94.
36. Moon RJ, Martini A, Nairn J, Simonsen J, Youngblood J. Cellulose nanomaterials review. Chem Soc Rev. 2011;40:3941–94.
37. Jonoobi M, Oladi R, Davoudpour Y, et al. Different preparation methods and properties of nanostructured cellulose. Cellulose. 2015;22:935–69.
38. Li D, Xia Y. Electrospinning of nanofibers: Reinventing the wheel? Adv Mater. 2004;16:1151–70.
39. Dufresne A. Nanocellulose: From nature to high performance tailored materials. Berlin: De Gruyter; 2017.
40. Eichhorn SJ, Dufresne A, Aranguren M, et al. Review: Current international research into cellulose nanofibres. J Mater Sci. 2010;45:1–33.
41. Wang B, Sain M, Oksman K. Study of structural morphology of hemp fiber from the micro to the nanoscale. Appl Compos Mater. 2007;14:89–103.
42. Lee KY, Aitomäki Y, Berglund LA, et al. Critical review: Processing of nanocellulose. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2014;56:15–30.
43. Sehaqui H, Zhou Q, Berglund LA. High-performance nanocomposites based on cellulose nanofibers and polyurethane. Biomacromolecules. 2011;12(10):3858–66.
44. Tang Y, Yang H, Wang X, Yu Z, Zhang L. Preparation and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from corn husk. Cellulose Chem Technol. 2012;46(3–4):217–23.
45. Li X, Xu H, Chen Z, Wang Y. Preparation of carboxymethyl cellulose from cotton linter pulp using microwave-assisted method. Cellulose. 2013;20(1):287–96.
46. Ghosh P, Das M, Ghosh S. Synthesis and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from rice straw. Int J Biol Macromol. 2015;75:318–24.
47. Reddy N, Yang Y. Biofibers from agricultural byproducts for industrial applications. Trends Biotechnol. 2005;23(1):22–7.
48. Kalia S, Dufresne A, Cherian BM, Kaith BS, Avérous L, Njuguna J, et al. Cellulose-based bio- and nanocomposites: A review. Int J Polym Sci. 2011;2011:837875.
49. Szymańska M, Winnicka K. Stability of hydrogels based on carboxymethyl cellulose and sodium alginate. Polymers. 2015;7(3):550–61.
50. Bajpai SK, Sharma S. Investigation of swelling/degradation behavior of alginate beads crosslinked with Ca2+ and Ba2+ ions. React Funct Polym. 2004;59(2):129–40.
51. George J, Ramana KV, Bawa AS, Siddaramaiah. Carboxymethyl cellulose–polyvinyl alcohol films as biodegradable packaging material. J Appl Polym Sci. 2005;96(3):576–83.
52. Reddy N, Yang Y. Structure and properties of wheat straw cellulose fibers. Ind Crops Prod. 2007;26(1):100–6.
53. Li Y, Liu Y, Wang Z, Zhang Y, Zhang J. Preparation and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from tobacco stem. Cellulose Chem Technol. 2014;48(9–10):789–95.
54. Zhang L, Ruan D, Gao S. Dissolution and regeneration of cellulose in NaOH/urea aqueous solution. J Polym Sci B Polym Phys. 2002;40(14):1521–9.
55. Wang W, Zhu W, Wang Y, Li J. Preparation and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from cotton stalk. J Chem. 2015;2015:1–6.
Published
2024-11-10
How to Cite
Vrushali Kulkarni, & Dr. Namdeo Jadhav. (2024). Physicochemical And Pharmaceutical Evaluation Of Cellulose And Na-CMC Obtained From Bagasse And Leaves Of Sugarcane Species Co-7527. Revista Electronica De Veterinaria, 25(2), 2210-2218. https://doi.org/10.69980/redvet.v25i2.2157
Section
Articles
